Hadrian’s Wall
Hadrian’s Wall: A Triumph of Roman Engineering and Frontier Defence
Hadrian’s Wall, an awe-inspiring testament to Roman ingenuity, stands proudly as a continuous defensive barrier safeguarding the northwestern frontier of the Province of Britain against barbarian invaders. Stretching 73 miles from Wallsend (Segedunum) on the River Tyne in the east to Bowness on the Solway Firth in the west, this remarkable structure extends coast to coast across the width of Northern Britain.
Table of Contents:
Architectural Marvels and Strategic Design:
Emperor Hadrian, during his rule from 117 to 138 CE, envisioned a grand defensive structure that would not only showcase Roman engineering prowess but also strategically guard against potential threats. The original plan called for the construction of a stone wall, 10 Roman feet wide, and at least 12 feet high for the eastern sector. The western sector, in contrast, was designed with a turf rampart, 20 Roman feet wide at the base. Both sections were fronted by a ditch, with exceptions made where crags rendered it unnecessary.
The meticulous design incorporated towers at every 1/3 Roman mile and milefortlets (milecastles) at each mile, complete with gates through the wall. These gates were presumably surmounted by towers, and each milefortlet housed one or two barrack-blocks. Before the completion of this elaborate scheme, forts were strategically built along the wall line at approximately 7-mile intervals. Additionally, an earthwork known as the Vallum was dug behind the wall and forts. As the construction progressed, the stone wall’s width was narrowed from the originally planned 10 Roman feet to about 8 feet.
Hadrian’s Expansion and Successor’s Choices:
In 122 CE, Emperor Hadrian, recognizing the need for a robust barrier, visited Britain and initiated the construction of the monumental wall. The ambitious project, spanning 80 miles, aimed to separate Romans from barbarians. The initial construction of the wall took approximately six years, and subsequent expansions followed. However, upon Hadrian’s death, his successor, Antoninus Pius (138–161), sought to extend Roman dominion northward by constructing a new wall in Scotland known as the Antonine Wall.
The Antonine Wall, stretching for 37 miles along the narrow isthmus between the estuaries of the Rivers Forth and Clyde, became an alternative to Hadrian’s Wall. Yet, within two decades, the Antonine Wall was abandoned in favour of Hadrian’s Wall. The latter, with its proven effectiveness, continued in use almost until the end of Roman rule in Britain in 410 CE.
Builders and Purpose:
The construction of Hadrian’s Wall was mainly carried out by soldiers from the three legions of Britain. However, the wall was guarded by auxiliary troops. Its primary objective was not to engage in direct battles from the top of the wall, but rather to control movement across the frontier and counter low-intensity threats. The troops stationed on the wall were trained and equipped to encounter the enemy in open terrain, emphasizing strategic flexibility.
Insights into Garrison Life:
Archaeological excavations conducted in 1990–91 near Maryport, Cumbria, provided intriguing insights into the lifestyle of a Roman garrison. The excavations focused on a milefortlet, a short-lived outpost during Hadrian’s reign. Discoveries included fragments of game boards, a multitude of hearths, and ovens, providing a glimpse into the daily activities and leisure pursuits of the Roman soldiers. The fortlet has been partially reconstructed and made accessible to the public, allowing visitors to connect with the past.
UNESCO World Heritage and Enduring Tourist Appeal:
In recognition of its historical and cultural significance, Hadrian’s Wall was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. Despite facing damage over the centuries due to roads traversing it and the plunder of its stones to build nearby structures, the remaining foundations and forts continue to attract tourists from around the world. The comparison with other iconic structures, such as the Great Wall of China, underscores the global fascination with these monumental feats of ancient engineering.
Unified Cultural Area and Social Impact:
By 200 BC, well before Roman influence, the region on both sides of the wall, from Lothian to the north and the River Wear to the south, had developed a unified cultural area marked by rectilinear enclosures. These enclosures served as the nuclei of extensive farming settlements, highlighting a socially hierarchical structure. The wall, cutting across this coherent cultural area, was built during a period of serious warfare in Britain, necessitating significant Roman reinforcements.
The garrison stationed along Hadrian’s Wall, comprising Roman soldiers and their families, possibly constituted 22-30% of the regional population. Evidence suggests that they couldn’t be entirely sustained by local resources, and surpluses would have been taxed or requisitioned. The Roman-style settlements to the south, between the wall and the River Tees, emerged in the early second century, indicating the rapid development of Roman cultural elements.
North of the Wall:
Northwards, a different picture emerged. Southern Scotland and the Northumbrian coastal plain lost their monumental building traditions, and little late Roman pottery was found. The Romans might have cleared this zone of its population, similar to their actions on the Rhine and beyond the Danube frontier. Some sites were still occupied, like the re-occupation of the fort of Burnswark Hill. Pollen evidence suggests that the landscape immediately north of the Wall remained generally open, without forest regeneration until the end of Roman rule.
Limited Contact Across the Wall:
The wall served as an effective barrier to trade, with Roman coins and pottery rarely moving across it. Elite centres continued to import Roman goods, indicating ongoing exchange at specific crossing points. Coins, predominantly silver, suggest high-value transactions, reflecting activity in the late first and early second centuries, a decline during the Antonine period, and a subsequent recovery.
After Hadrian:
After the death of Emperor Hadrian in 138, the new emperor, Antoninus Pius, abandoned Hadrian’s Wall and occupied it in a support role, preferring the Antonine Wall. But when Marcus Aurelius became emperor, he reoccupied Hadrian’s Wall and made it the main defensive barrier in 164. In 208-211, Emperor Septimius Severus attempted to conquer Caledonia and temporarily reoccupied the Antonine Wall, but the campaign ended inconclusively and the Romans withdrew to Hadrian’s Wall.
As barbarian invasions, economic decline, and military coups weakened the Roman Empire’s hold on Britain in the late 4th century, the Roman administration and its legions left. By 410 CE, when Roman rule in Britain ended, Hadrian’s Wall had fallen into ruin. The stone from the wall was repurposed in local buildings, but some forts remained occupied by local Britons under the control of a prominent figure, perhaps a Coel Hen.
Legacy and Enduring Influence:
Hadrian’s Wall, although it eventually fell into disuse and was repurposed, left an unforgettable mark on the landscape and the collective memory. The materials salvaged from Hadrian’s Wall were incorporated into the construction of St. Paul’s Church in Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey in the 7th century. This legacy continues to captivate historians, archaeologists, and tourists, providing a glimpse into a bygone era.
Conclusion:
Hadrian’s Wall, with its strategic brilliance, cultural impact, and lasting legacy, remains an enduring symbol of Roman influence in Britannia. This architectural marvel, transcending centuries, invites exploration and contemplation, offering valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of ancient frontier defence and the cultural interplay along the borderlands of the Roman Empire.
